The Voyage of Ibn Fadlan, a 10th-century Arab in Russia

 In the tenth century, a religious teacher named Ibn Fadlan traveled to the Volga Bulghar empire in modern-day Russia. Along the route, he kept a journal, which became a valuable resource for reconstructing Russia's early history, among other things.

Background

The tenth-century is sometimes dismissed as a blip in human history, a gloomy epoch rife with ignorance and superstition. While this may be true in Europe, it was not the case in Islamic countries.

Muslim holdings had spread as far west as Spain, east as India, and north as regions of modern-day Russia. Baghdad had been controlled by the Abbasids for two centuries. Their political dominance was diminishing, leading to the rise of several regional dynasties, but the Islamic world was thriving culturally. Baghdad had been the intellectual capital of the globe for more than a century, with its libraries and translation schools. Under the Umayyads of Spain, Cordova could now rival its claims, while the Fatimids of Egypt were to construct al-Azhar in what would soon be built as their new capital, 'al-Qahirah,' in a couple of decades.

Travelers from all over the world would have recognized a Muslim-ruled region; via the mobility of peoples and dynasties, craftsmen and traders, as well as specific exterior features, became linked with 'the Islamic world.' Buildings and items, such as literature and textiles, revealed an 'Islamic' style. 

Ibn Fadlan

The Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir (d.932) dispatched Ahmad ibn Fadln ibn al-Abbs ibn Rid ibn Hammd to the kingdom of the Volga Bulghars in modern-day Russia in this environment. The monarch, who had lately converted to Islam, had asked the dispatch of a religious scholar to enlighten the new converts on matters of faith. Little is known about Ibn Fadlan, and even less would be known if it weren't for the journal he kept to document his travels, which has proven to be an invaluable historical source.

His book is one of the primary references to ancient Russia, as well as the first Arab account of non-Muslims. Ibn Fadlan narrates his encounter with a gang of traders west of the Volga in a portion labeled 'al-Rus.' Little did he know that his observations would become a key source in piecing together Russia's early history and its people centuries later when there was still no clear consensus.

Historians have long contested the identity of these Rus people, with Swedish Vikings being one of the most controversial candidates. [ii] Taking advantage of the chance to examine their habits and customs, Ibn Fadlan compares their "excellent physiques" to palm trees. Parts of his story, which document their way of life, reveal graphic information about sexual activities that are unsettling even to a modern reader. He says this on the use of slave girls by Rus men:

"For trading, they are accompanied by gorgeous slave girls. While his partner watches, one man will engage in sexual activity with his slave girl. When a bunch of them gets together to do this, they do it in front of each other."

"I was quite determined to verify this, when I learned of the death of one of their great men," he says after learning that chieftains and significant people are cremated once they die. This takes us to one of the most vivid and terrible scenes in his narrative. The important man is readied for cremation, together with one of his slave girls who has volunteered to die with him, according to the description of the funerary procedure, which lasts for days and comprises of different ceremonies.

After multiple men have had sexual relations with her, a lady is known as 'The Angel of Death' wraps a rope around her neck and stabs her with a knife while two men throttle her with the rope. Her lifeless body is then thrown on the boat, along with her master, to be burned.

Ibn Fadlan's Journey to al-Rus in the 10th Century

So, what did a tenth-century Baghdad religious scholar think of a group of idol-worshiping tradesmen who are "addicted to drink" and engage in ritual human sacrifice?

Interestingly, Ibn Fadlan's report does not moralize or cast judgment on individuals he watches, despite a few unfavorable parallels (he compares them to assess in terms of their hygiene). His tone is not condescending, and he does not attempt to sensationalize his findings in writing, which would have been upsetting to a Muslim of his time (and certainly most current observers).

His simple language gives the sense that he is just describing what he believes to be true, rather than expressing his own perspective. "Sometimes one of them dies with the cup still in his hand," he says, abruptly changing the subject without pronouncing judgment on their usage of alcohol.

Ibn Fadlan, predictably, chooses to highlight aspects of the Rus people's lives that diverge from or contradict typical Islamic practices or principles. He refers to them as the "filthiest of all Allah's creations" because "they do not clean themselves after excreting or urinating or wash when in a state of ritual impurity (i.e. after coitus)." "There is no filthy impurity which he will not do in this water," he remarks as he watches many guys perform their daily ablutions with a communal basin of water. This picture would be particularly revolting to a Muslim like Ibn Fadlan, who is forbidden by Islam from using stagnant or reused water for ablution.

The chronicle Ibn Fadhlan produced following his travels in Northern Europe is one of the oldest complete portrayals of the Vikings. Ibn Fadhlan, an Arab Muslim writer and explorer, was dispatched from Baghdad to the Volga Bulgars along the Black Sea and the Caspian in 921 CE as the secretary of an ambassador from the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir. The mission itself was a complete failure. But while he was there, Ibn Fadhlan documented his interaction with a group of northern traders.Rus, or Rusiyyah, he termed them.

Ibn Fadlan is both educated and inquisitive in his writings as an eyewitness. Because he rarely expresses his personal opinions, it's possible that the target audience for his work was not the broader public, but rather an official government record. Even yet, as his main motivation for visiting the region was to advise the Bulghars' monarch on topics of the Islamic faith, we might conclude he was a devout Muslim scholar. With this in mind, one might expect him to see things through the lens of his faith and go far further than he does in criticizing the "wrongful" activities he sees.

His perspective is particularly notable because it is the first documented Muslim explanation of non-Muslims. As shocking as many of the acts Ibn Fadlan witnesses and describes are, it is what he doesn't mention that makes the most lasting impression in an age that is indiscriminately labeled as gloomy.